ࡱ> o;7=766666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666777777777 7 7 7 7 7777777777777777777 7!7"7#7$7%7&7'7(7)7*7+7,7-7.7/7071727374757677787q [bjbjt+t+ 5AAFW]B B B B B $f TB ; ( ///V9X9X9X9.9 : ;$<>;/+///;_1 _1_1_1/  V9 /V9_1$_158V9  [!:B B ;0$>9SAR for Operational Ice Observation and Analysis Cheryl Bertoia, Craig Evanego, Chris OConnors: U.S. National Ice Center Michael Manore: Canadian Ice Service Henrik Steen Andersen, Keld Q. Hansen: Danish Meteorological Institute OPERATIONAL ICE SERVICES Operational ice services from more than a dozen nations routinely issue ice and iceberg bulletins, warnings, analysis charts, and forecasts to support safe navigation in ice-affected waters. In addition, these ice analysis products are finding increasing use as a record of ice conditions to support climate change studies. The major ice charting nations of the Arctic work in remarkably similar manners, but with differences in their geographic regions of interest, user base, and analysis data sets. Most centers now rely heavily on satellite image data as their primary data source, supplemented by airborne reconnaissance (visual or with imaging radar), ship reports, and meteorological inputs. Ice is highly dynamic and requires frequent and timely data sources for accurate charting. Each operational ice centre has invested in the infrastructure to receive, analyze and disseminate large volumes of data in near real-time. Virtually all data is now processed in digital form and geographic information systems are used to create products and disseminate them. SATELLITE DATA SOURCES Visible and thermal imagery from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) -AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) sensor, originally developed for meteorological applications but well suited to ice monitoring, has been a long-standing workhorse for many ice centers because of its ready availability and frequent coverage. In addition, the thermal channels permit imaging of ice and interpretation of its thickness even in periods of polar darkness. Its 1-km resolution permits the charting of strategic ice information suitable for making general ship routing recommendations, but not for close tactical navigation. Other nations make use of equivalent meteorological satellites such as Japans GMS or Russias Meteor systems. The U.S. NIC also makes extensive use the Operational Linescan System (OLS) from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites which provide 0.5 km visible and thermal imagery. Of course, the main limitation of optical systems is their susceptibility to cloud cover. The part of the ice pack of greatest interest to ship traffic - the area near the ice edge - is typically obscured by cloud or fog about 70% of the time. Ice services rely on passive microwave imagery from the Special Sensor Microwave/ Imager (SSM/I) sensor on the U.S. DMSP satellites to provides near daily, all-weather, multi-channel microwave radiometry over a 1394 km swath. Automatic algorithms for the extraction of ice edge, total ice concentration and multi-year ice concentration have been developed and validated over many years. The sensor provides only coarse resolution sea ice products (12.5 km 25 km), but is a reliable data source for regions where only basic ice edge and ice concentration information is required for strategic navigation decisions, such as Antarctica. In addition, the relatively long record of passive microwave data (1972 - present) and coarse resolution make it a favored data source for ice-related climate change studies at hemispheric scales. Because of weather, polar darkness and the desire for higher resolution imagery the ice services have had a strong interest radar remote sensing since the technology emerged (Bertoia, et al, 1999). As far back as the early 1970s airborne real aperture radars (SLARs) were used to map the ice pack and in the1980s and 1990s airborne SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) and SLAR systems were in operational use. In 1991, the European Space Agencys ERS-1 provided the first sustained taste of satellite radar data, and in 1996, wide-swath (500km) SAR data became available from RADARSAT-1. SAR data offers the advantage of high-resolution imaging through cloud and polar darkness, and a sensitivity to the surface roughness and salinity properties of sea ice that help to distinguish different ice types. RADARSAT data was quickly adopted by the Canadian and U.S. ice services under national data allocations, and later by several European ice services on a commercial basis. At the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) and in several other cases, the purchase of satellite SAR imagery has been made possible through cost savings by reducing or eliminating aircraft reconnaissance. Demonstration projects using RADARSAT for ice monitoring in Russia, Japan and China have been conducted but its use has not yet been adopted operationally. It is estimated that more than 10,000 scenes per year of SAR data are currently used for operational ice monitoring. The future multi-channel SAR systems (Envisat, ALOS, RADARSAT-2) are expected to improve the quality of ice information in the imagery but with the requirement to handle increased data volumes and to develop new analysis techniques, including the use of multi-polarization and fully-polarimetric data. Ice centers expect to combine SAR from these multiple sources in order to resolve ambiguities in ice type discrimination found when using only one channel of SAR data. Other work includes improvements in image processing approaches to detect low concentrations of sea ice and improved detection of icebergs. The operational centers look forward to a a constellation of SAR satellites will permit better spatial and temporal coverage, as well as provide operational redundancy in the event of system failure. CASE STUDIES The following case studies present examples of how the ice centers have made use of SAR data to provide support to navigation and to create ice maps in conjunction with other data sources. U.S. National Ice Center: Bering Sea Analysis March 27, 2000 The U.S. National Ice Center (NIC) produces a suite of global sea ice chart, including twice weekly charts of the Alaskan region (available at  HYPERLINK http://www.natice.noaa.gov http://www.natice.noaa.gov) in support of shipping and fisheries operations and other national intersts in the Bering, Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. In order to create the Alaskan ice maps, the NIC receives approximately 6000 images per year from the Alaska SAR Facility in Fairbanks, Alaska. Each image is typicallly received at the NIC less than three hours after the image is acquired in Alaska. On March 27, 2000, a National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) surface analysis showed northwesterly winds over the Eastern Bering Sea, generated by the circulation around a storm system over southeastern Alaska. These winds dragged cold air (less than 0C) across the ice pack and out over the relatively warm open water in the southern Bering Sea. The cold air streaking over the open water produced bands of stratocumulus clouds, obscuring the marginal ice zone and ice edge. Clearing skies behind the storm system allowed good visibility of inner ice pack on the visible AVHRR image (Figure 1). Visible and infrared imagery from NOAA satellites is a useful adjunct to SAR imagery, providing useful clues to ice type/thickness.  Figure 1. NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) visible image from 0144Z on March 27, 2000. The red box shows the approximate position of the Radarsat SAR image (Figure 3). A coincident RADARSAT image (Figure 2) shows belting and stripping of new, young and first-year ice along the ice edge. Though the marginal ice zone and ice edge are obscured by streaks of stratocumulus clouds, this RADARSAT image allowed the ice analyst to accurately analyze the ice edge and marginal ice zone for the weekly ice analysis (Figure 3).  Figure 2. ScanSAR Wide RADARSAT image acquired at 0442Z on March 27, 2000. The zoom box show fine belts and strips of ice near the edge. NICs SAR imagery is processed to 100-m pixels, then averaged to 500-m pixel spacing, making the detection of these small features possible, while eliminating some classification confusion due to image speckle.  Figure 3. NIC Alaskan regional sea ice analysis chart for XX March 2000. Sea ice total concentration and ice type (a proxy for ice thickness) are encoded using the World Meteorological Organizations egg code (described fully at  HYPERLINK "http://www.natice.noaa.gov/egg.htm" http://www.natice.noaa.gov/egg.htm) NIC analysts have found SAR imagery very useful in analyzing ice concentration and ice type, particularly in the marginal ice zone and along the ice edge. Accurate depiction of the ice edge is particularly important to the large Alaskan snow crab industry in the Bering Sea. Crab fishermen typically set traps in the vicinity of the ice edge, and thus require a detailed analysis of conditions at and near the ice edge for safety of operations. Clouds often obscure the marginal ice zone and ice edge during the Alaskan winter for months. It is imperative to include SAR imagery in the ice analysis process for best representation of ice conditions. B. Canadian Ice Service: Canadian Archipelgo February 1-4, 2001 The Canadian Archipelago hosts a diversity of ice regimes composed of multi-year, first-year, and new ice types, as well as icebergs. Ice growth typically starts in late-September and continues throughout the Arctic winter until early melt begins in May and June. Wintertime conditions are extremely cold (-30C to -40C) which supports rapid and thick sea ice growth. First-year ice will reach thickness of 1.5m 2.0m, while multi-year ice may achieve thicknesses of 5m or more. Navigation in this region is limited to the brief Arctic summer (July-September) when the ice is weaker due to melt and decay and some leads are present. Hard, thick multi-year ice poses the greatest hazard to ships operation in this region so its detection and mapping is particularly important. Figure X is a mosaic of multiple RADARSAT-1 orbits collected February 1-4, 2001. Figure Y is the resulting ice analysis chart derived from the mosaic and published in the Canadian Ice Services annual Arctic Ice Atlas. The imagery illustrates typical wintertime, cold-weather ice signatures. Multi-year ice floes are clearly distinguishable by their bright signature, rounded shape and mottled texture (A). The edge of the multi-year pack ice in the Beaufort Sea is clearly visible because of this bright signature (B). Undeformed first-year ice is dark in tone due to specular reflection from its saline (lossy), smooth surface (C). Deformed ice has a bright signature caused by high surface roughness and multi-bounce scattering (D). First-year ice generated under moderate wind and wave conditions may also exhibit bright signatures due to the formation of rough ice pancakes with raised, angular edges (E). Cold, fresh water snow overlying the ice is virtually transparent at C-band so all returns are controlled by the surface (first-year) or volume (multi-year) scattering characteristics of the underlying ice. Figure Ya and Yb are subscenes of RADARSAT images from (site) in the Central Archipelago. Image Ya was acquired May 12, 1999 under cold conditions and exhibits signatures similar to those in Figure X. Figure Yb, however, was acquired July 30 and illustrates the radical signature change that occurs under wet snow conditions during the melt season. In the summer the overyling snow pack becomes saturated with liquid water and becomes the main contributor to scattering. This has the effect of decreasing contrast between ice types by masking the returns from the underlying ice. Multi-year ice that was easily interpreted under cold conditions is now difficult to distinguish from the surrounding first-year ice. As most navigation in the Arctic takes place during the summer, this poses a significant operational challenge. In regions with no or little ice motion winter imagery is often used in combination with current imagery to aid in multi-year ice detection and avoidance.  Fig X.( caption to follow)  Fig Y. (caption to follow)  Fig Z. (caption to follow) C. Danish Meteorological Service For the safety of ship navigation the Danish Meteorological Institute produces satellite-based ice charts for Greenland waters on a routine basis. All areas around Greenland are charted as required by shipping traffic, but the Cape Farewell area, through which almost all ships to and from Greenland have to pass, is charted throughout the year. The waters off the southernmost part of Greenland, the Cape Farewell area, belong to some of the most hazardous to navigation in world due to the combination frequent severe storms, low visibility, multi-year sea ice and icebergs. Sea ice is present in the Cape Farewell area from December to August but icebergs from the east coast glaciers occur throughout the year. The distribution of sea ice in the Cape Farewell area is strongly affected by the position and intensity of weather systems and large variations on short time scales may result. In general sea ice drift approximately equals 1 km/hour, however larger drift speeds frequently occur. Sea ice several meters thick drifts into the Greenland Sea from the Arctic Basin via the Fram Strait. This multi-year ice combines with locally formed first year ice and icebergs as it reaches the Cape Farewell area, then continues around the southern tip of Greenland. The ice pack often drifts several hundred kilometres north along the west coast of Greenland. The ice floes in the Fram Strait are often 50 km across or more. During their southward drift along the Greenland coast, the floes break into smaller pieces and are mixed with first year sea ice, particularly at the ice edge. South of Scoresby Sound the floe sizes seldom exceed 5 km. By the time the ice reaches the Cape Farewell area the floe sizes are usually less than 100 meters. These very small floes are mostly multi-year floes with thicknesses greater than 2 meters and are a great danger to shipping. The backscatter signatures from open water and sea ice in this region are not unique. The backscatter from the water is dominated by the local wind conditions and that from the ice is dependent on ice type, ice concentration, surface roughness of the individual floes and level of surface melting. The backscatter signals are also critically dependent on the radar incidence angles (far / near range effects). For example it is quite common that belts of ice appear nearly white in the far range and nearly black in the near range when viewed against the background sea clutter. The present case illustrates a typical situation during the Cape Farewell sea ice season. To an experienced ice analyst, the available RADARSAT ScanSAR Wide image is quite straightforward to interpret. This may leave the impression that SAR imagery is the ultimate ice charting tool for ice services and indeed this is true in many cases. However, in some cases SAR imagery is extremely difficult to analyze. This is particularly true when low concentrations sea ice covered with surface melt water are found in the near range part of the image. Figure 1. A RADARSAT ScanSAR Wide scene from May 12 2000 20:48 UTC covering part of the Cape Farewell area. The scene was received by the Gatinau receiving station. The pixel size is 100 meters. The satellite orbit is ascending and consequently the left part of the image is in near range and the far range is to the right. Often the far range part of the image provides better possibilities for discrimination between sea ice and open sea. The beam seams is clearly visible going from the top the bottom, however the bright line parallel to the beam seam is caused by a processing error. Figure 2. A subsection of the image shown in figure 1. The sea surface roughness may be dampened as a consequence of calm winds or the presence of sea ice and consequently the backscatter signal is reduced. In the areas marked (A) the dampening effect of smooth sea can be seen due to the presence of 10 30 % sea ice. The wind arrow indicates the Northwest direction of the wind (7-8 m/s) and in area (B) lee effects are clearly visible. Figure 3. A subsection of the image shown in figure 1. This image illustrates different sea ice concentration levels. In all cases the sea ice type is predominately multi-year ice with floe sixes ranging from 10 to 100 meter. (A) Icebergs, (B) Icebergs and less than 10 % sea ice, (C) less than 10 % sea ice, (D) from 10 to 30 % sea ice and belts. (E) 40 to 60 % sea ice, (F) 90 to 100 % sea ice. Figure 4. The resulting ice analysis resulting from a visual interpretation. The ice analyst always tries to generalise the information available in the image to produce a simple yet elaborate chart, which can be used for navigation. The ice edge is in magenta and the inner boundaries are in cyan. The special symbols indicate the presence of icebergs and belts of ice. Figure 5. The resulting ice chart based on the ice analysis. The different ice areas are described using the standard WMO ice egg symbols. On an annual basis DMI produces in NRT about 180 navigation ice charts for the Cape Farewell waters and about 150 charts to ships operating along the West and East coast of Greenland. One a week an ice analysis covering all Greenland waters is produced based on all available satellite data and auxiliary background information. D. National Ice Center and Canadian Ice Service: Great Lakes Analysis: February 22, 2001 This case study highlights the shared responsibility between the U.S. and Canada for ice charting in the Great Lakes. The Lakes are an area of common operational interest and the collection of satellite imagery and the production of charts is coordinated. The NIC issues an NIC-generated chart of all five Great Lakes weekly and also issues the CIS produced five lake composite weekly. In addition to a weekly composite chart, the CIS issues daily charts of a sub-set of lakes as required to support navigation and also issues the NIC generated composite chart weekly. Both ice services share satellite data sets and analyses for the generation of their respective products.  Figure X. A mosaic of two RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR Wide-A images covering the central Great Lakes, acquired February 22, 2001 at approximately 23 UTC. In this image, high concentrations of ice are clearly evident in Lake Erie. The ice concentration, ice deformation and therefore ice thickness increase towards the eastern end of the lake under the influence of seasonally predominant westerly winds that funnel the ice into the narrower eastern end of the Lake. The bright returns seen in this area indicate strong deformation conditions. Low ice concentration, thinner ice types, and less deformed ice are present in the western portion of the Lake, which is typically an area of new ice formation in the latter half of the season. Wind conditions at the time of the image acquisition were SW at 10-15Kts, and the temperatures ranged from 8 to 5 Celsius. In Lake Huron, low-to-moderate concentrations of ice are evident around the southwestern and southeastern shores. Higher concentrations and thickness types are evident in the Saginaw Bay and along the northeastern shores because of their shallow depth and relatively sheltered topography. A large area of open water is clearly visible in the central portion of the lake. The high return of the younger ice types in the southern portion of the lake result from the predominant westerly wind compacting ice along the eastern shoreline, creating fields of brash ice. At the time of the image the winds were from the south at 5 to 10 Kts, and sections of brash ice are visible drifting away from the southern coastline. In the small sections of Lakes Superior and Michigan covered by the SAR images, ice is located only along the eastern margins. Interesting to note is the relatively high backscatter over open water (compared to the other lakes) caused by the small incidence angle in the far range. Again, predominant westerly winds have compacted the ice along the eastern shores. In northeastern Lake Michigan, a bright linear feature between the open water and the area of ice packed into the Straits is visible. This is a typical signature in SAR imagery that indicates that ice is under compaction. A linear region of high return results from the interaction of the wind and waves with the ice pack, which pile ice up along the ice edge. This feature is very useful in edge identification. A similar signature can be seen were fast ice boundaries interact with open water or pack ice areas. Ice charts resulting from the analysis of a RADARSAT scene (Figure X) are presented in Figures Ya and Yb. As the Great Lakes are fresh water, the radar signatures differ from those for sea ice and are driven by a combination of both surface and volume scattering in all ice thickness types.  Figure Ya. CIS Great Lakes daily chart, based specifically on images aquired that day and shown in Figure X.   Figure Yb. NIC Western Great Lakes weekly composite, based on imagery acquired immediately prior to the images shown in Figure X. This chart nicely complements Figure Ya, giving mariners a complete picture of ice navigation conditions. III. Possible conclusions section or just end with final case, depending on how long cases are. If we need, we can use some stuff about future directions, developmental products. For operational ice services, continuity is of cause a major concern and the present configuration with only one operational satellite that can provide imagery with sufficient coverage is not optimal. The future situation with both RADARSAT and ENVISAT present will without doubt increase data coverage and make SAR data even more useful for ice services around the world. References: Bertoia, Cheryl and J. Falkingham, F.Fetterer, 1998. Polar SAR Data for Operational Sea Ice Mapping, in R. Kwok and C. Tsatsoulis (Eds.). Recent Advances in the Analysis of SAR Data of the Polar Oceans, Springer Verlag: Berlin, pp. 201-234. 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