ࡱ> €ÀĀŀƀǀȀɀʀˀ̀̀΀πЀрҀӀԀՀր׀؀ـڀۀ܀݀ހ߀  q Kbjbjt+t+ AAG].,v(z||||||$"ySvyyyzzy.y zZXc bSAR for Operational Ice Observation and Analysis Cheryl Bertoia, Chris OConnors, Craig Evanego: U.S. National Ice Center Michael Manore: Canadian Ice Service Henrik Steen Andersen: Danish Meteorological Institute OPERATIONAL ICE SERVICES Operational ice services from more than a dozen nations routinely issue ice and iceberg bulletins, warnings, analysis charts, and forecasts to support safe navigation in ice-affected waters. In addition, these ice analysis products are finding increasing use as a record of ice conditions to support climate change studies. The major ice charting nations of the Arctic work in remarkably similar manners, but with differences in their geographic regions of interest, user base, and analysis data sets. Most centers now rely heavily on satellite image data as their primary data source, supplemented by airborne reconnaissance (visual or with imaging radar), ship reports, and meteorological inputs. Ice is highly dynamic and requires frequent and timely data sources for accurate charting. Each operational ice centre has invested in the infrastructure to receive, analyze and disseminate large volumes of data in near real-time. Virtually all data is now processed in digital form and geographic information systems are used to create products and disseminate them. SATELLITE DATA SOURCES Visible and thermal imagery from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) -AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) sensor, originally developed for meteorological applications but well suited to ice monitoring, has been a long-standing workhorse for many ice centers because of its ready availability and frequent coverage. In addition, the thermal channels permit imaging of ice and interpretation of its thickness even in periods of polar darkness. Its 1-km resolution permits the charting of strategic ice information suitable for making general ship routing recommendations, but not for close tactical navigation. Other nations make use of equivalent meteorological satellites such as Japans GMS or Russias Meteor systems. The U.S. NIC also makes extensive use the Operational Linescan System (OLS) from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites which provide 0.5 km visible and thermal imagery. Of course, the main limitation of optical systems is their susceptibility to cloud cover. The part of the ice pack of greatest interest to ship traffic - the area near the ice edge - is typically obscured by cloud or fog about 70% of the time. Ice services rely on passive microwave imagery from the Special Sensor Microwave/ Imager (SSM/I) sensor on the U.S. DMSP satellites to provides near daily, all-weather, multi-channel microwave radiometry over a 1394 km swath. Automatic algorithms for the extraction of ice edge, total ice concentration and multi-year ice concentration have been developed and validated over many years. The sensor provides only coarse resolution sea ice products (12.5 km 25 km), but is a reliable data source for regions where only basic ice edge and ice concentration information is required for strategic navigation decisions, such as Antarctica. In addition, the relatively long record of passive microwave data (1972 - present) and coarse resolution make it a favored data source for ice-related climate change studies at hemispheric scales. Because of weather, polar darkness and the desire for higher resolution imagery the ice services have had a strong interest radar remote sensing since the technology emerged (Bertoia, et al, 1999). As far back as the early 1970s airborne real aperture radars (SLARs) were used to map the ice pack and in the1980s and 1990s airborne SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) and SLAR systems were in operational use. In 1991, the European Space Agencys ERS-1 provided the first sustained taste of satellite radar data, and in 1996, wide-swath (500km) SAR data became available from RADARSAT-1. SAR data offers the advantage of high-resolution imaging through cloud and polar darkness, and a sensitivity to the surface roughness and salinity properties of sea ice that help to distinguish different ice types. RADARSAT data was quickly adopted by the Canadian and U.S. ice services under national data allocations, and later by several European ice services on a commercial basis. At the Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) and in several other cases, the purchase of satellite SAR imagery has been made possible through cost savings by reducing or eliminating aircraft reconnaissance. Demonstration projects using RADARSAT for ice monitoring in Russia, Japan and China have been conducted but its use has not yet been adopted operationally. It is estimated that more than 10,000 scenes per year of SAR data are currently used for operational ice monitoring. The future multi-channel SAR systems (Envisat, ALOS, RADARSAT-2) are expected to improve the quality of ice information in the imagery but with the requirement to handle increased data volumes and to develop new analysis techniques, including the use of multi-polarization and fully-polarimetric data. Ice centers expect to combine SAR from these multiple sources in order to resolve ambiguities in ice type discrimination found when using only one channel of SAR data. Other work includes improvements in image processing approaches to detect low concentrations of sea ice and improved detection of icebergs. The operational centers look forward to a a constellation of SAR satellites will permit better spatial and temporal coverage, as well as provide operational redundancy in the event of system failure. CASE STUDIES The following case studies present examples of how the ice centers have made use of SAR data to provide support to navigation and to create ice maps in conjunction with other data sources. U.S. National Ice Center: Bering Sea Analysis March 27, 2000 The U.S. National Ice Center (NIC) produces twice weekly charts of the Alaskan region (available at  HYPERLINK http://www.natice.noaa.gov http://www.natice.noaa.gov) in support of shipping and fisheries operations and other national intersts in the Bering, Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. In order to create the Alaskan ice maps, the NIC receives approximately 6000 images per year from the Alaska SAR Facility in Fairbanks, Alaska. Each image is generally received at the NIC less than three hours after the image is acquired in Alaska. On March 27, 2000, northwesterly winds were generated by the circulation around a storm system over southeastern Alaska (Figure1), and are streaking over the Bering Sea ice pack. Clearing skies behind the storm system allowed good visibility of inner ice pack on the visible AVHRR image (Figure 2). However, bands of stratocumulus clouds, which are common during the winter months as cold air streams across the ice pack and out over the relatively warmer waters, obscure the marginal ice zone and ice edge.  Figure 1. National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) surface analysis for March 27, 2000.  Figure 2. NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) visible image from 0144Z on March 27, 2000. A coincident RADARSAT image (Figure 3) shows belting and stripping of new, young and first-year ice along the ice edge. Though the marginal ice zone and ice edge are obscured by streaks of stratocumulus clouds, this RADARSAT image allowed the ice analyst to accurately analyze the ice edge and marginal ice zone for the weekly ice analysis (Figure 4).  Figure 3. ScanSAR Wide RADARSAT image acquired at 0442Z on March 27, 2000.  Figure 4. NIC Alaskan regional sea ice analysis chart for XX March 2000. Sea ice total concentration and ice type (a proxy for ice thickness) are encoded using the World Meteorological Organizations egg code (described fully at  HYPERLINK "http://www.natice.noaa.gov/egg.htm" http://www.natice.noaa.gov/egg.htm) NIC analysts have found SAR imagery very useful in analyzing ice concentration and ice type, particularly in the marginal ice zone and along the ice edge. Accurate depiction of the ice edge is particularly important to the large Alaskan snow crab industry in the Bering Sea. Crab fishermen typically set traps in the vicinity of the ice edge, and thus require a detailed analysis of conditions at and near the ice edge for safety of operations. Clouds often obscure the marginal ice zone and ice edge during the Alaskan winter months. It is imperative to include SAR imagery in the ice analysis process for best representation of ice conditions. B. Canadian Ice Service Canadian Archipelago- (MY, FY, and new ice types, winter and summer SAR signatures) C. Danish Meteorological Service Southern tip of Greenland- Cape Farewell- (ice + high winds, icebergs, etc) D. National Ice Center: Great Lakes Analysis March 20, 2001 Before an ice analyst can begin to annotate satellite SAR data, basic background information must be acquired. In the third week in March, the Great Lakes are well into the melt season and the majority of the ice is starting to decay. In addition, as lake-ice conditions are mapped twice weekly at the NIC, the analyst uses knowledge of last weeks ice conditions as a guide in the current analysis. Lake Superior   Figure 1a. Figure 1b. RADARSAT image from OLS visible image 20 March 2001 2336z 21 March 2001 1238z In figure 1b, the blue lines represent ice boundaries of varying concentrations of thickness of ice. The .55km visible imagery was analyzed through thin clouds in the area labeled A. The brighter ice floes are easily identified through the clouds near the coast, and disappear in the clouds as you move towards the middle of the lake. The lines on the OLS image are a typical representation of what an ice analyst would estimate the boundary of the ice to be. Without additional data, the lines would stop at the end of where the clouds are transparent and the remainder of the analysis would have to be estimated from climatology and current weather conditions. In figure 1a, you see the RADARSAT image covering the same region from the 20th of March approximately 12 hours before the OLS image. On figure 1a, areas labeled A show where significant differences exist between the OLS analysis (dashed lines) and the RADARSAT analyzed lines (solid lines). Notice that in the eastern lake area where the OLS analysis was hindered by clouds and is incomplete, the RADARSAT analysis provides complete coverage. You also have a weakness labeled A; identified in the SAR image that was not clearly present on the visible image. This ties into the known strength of RADARSAT and SAR sensors with their ability to operate through clouds and provide greater clarity through higher resolution. Greater detail and clarity of the SAR analysis can also be seen by the features labeled B. In the northern part of the image, ice that was obscured by clouds is now analyzed and ice along the coast in the southern part of the image was more easily identified. The final feature of importance on the SAR image is labeled C. Feature C, a thin white line located in the bottom right of the figure 1a (Whitefish Bay) is a ship track through the ice. The ability to see ships or their routes in the ice makes SAR sensors a valuable resource for route planing and tactical support. Lake Michigan and The Straits of Mackinac   Figure2a Figure2b. RADARSAT image from OLS visible image 20 March 2001 2336z 21 March 2001 1238z As we move our analysis of the 20th of March into Lake Michigan and the Straits of Mackinac, we again find a subtle difference in the comparison of analysis lines in figure 2a. The area labeled B in figure 2a was obscured by clouds in figure 2b, and label C signifies some suspect targets not seen on the OLS image around an island not in the coastline file. The three features labeled a are ship tracks in the fast ice along normal ship lanes. On the left of figure 2a is Green Bay, WI. Notice the dark tones of the polygons to the north and the south in Green Bay on the SAR image. As ice begins to melt, melt water pools and collects on the ice surface, and changes the SAR signature of the ice. The SAR signature will darken to the point were the return would resemble open water. In these instances, visible imagery will help ground truth and modify data derived from the SAR image. In figure 2b, the high albedo of the ice makes it easy to identify, compared to the low albedo of the open water. You also see some dark striations on the fast ice in the visible imagery from melt water but still the difference of albedo is large enough to make a distinction. Another clue for the edge of the fast ice on the SAR images is the brighter return right at the edge of fast ice and open water were the analysis line for the SAR (solid) is located. At the edge of the fast ice boundary the water constant movement and wave action has been creating deformation in the ice thus increase it relief and thus its SAR signature. Lake Huron   Figure3a. Figure3b. RADARSAT image from OLS visible image 21 March 2001 2305z 21 March 2001 1238z The above images are a continuation of the analysis for the 20th-21st of March 2001. In these two figures we see partial coverage of Lake Huron from the RADARSAT pass, and full coverage from the OLS visible swath. One of the limiting factors of RADARSAT is the smaller swath width of the images, which means it takes multiple images to cover some areas of interest. One OLS pass covers the entire Great Lakes, while RADARSAT provides 95% coverage over a three-day period. In figure 3a letter B, we see suspect dark tones that have the look of new ice that may have formed overnight or the remnants of thicker forms of ice that are under going strong decay. In either case, something is suppressing the normal capillary wave pattern of the surrounding waters. When you look for these features in figure 2b, some of the larger dark patches in the bottom right of the image are analyzed, but not further up where the open water (less then 1/10 of ice) annotation is. For further investigation of these areas, the analyst would have to try continuity, by checking the previous ice chart or possibly look for a ship observation if lucky enough to have a ship in the area. In this case, the ice turned up to be older ice that was along the coast and was blown out into relatively warmer water. Letter A in figure 3a matches letter B in figure 3b, the polygon in figure 3a along the coast is a weakness in the pack ice, yet in the OLS analysis it was left as part of the larger polygon. The higher resolution and scale of the SAR image made the weakness seem more significant in the SAR image than in the coarser scale visible image. Either analysis may be correct depending on the customer and the detail required. Lake Erie   Figure4a. Figure4b. RADARSAT image from OLS visible image 21 March 2001 2305z 21 March 2001 1238z The last images in the series for the Great Lakes case study is for Lake Erie. Figure 4a is from a different RADARSAT image than the previous three sections, 2305z on the 21st of March. In this region, we also see melting going on in the signature of the ice. Again, its more obvious in the SAR imagery where the ice signature is dark and almost the same as the water surrounding it, letter A in figure 4b and letter B in figure 4a. Letter A in figure 4a corresponds to the letter B in figure 4b, which shows clouds obscuring the ice edge on the visible imagery and the completed analysis on the SAR image. In this case, the clouds in figure 4b have roughly the same albedo as the ice. The distinguishing differences between the ice and clouds are the cloud extends over the land and the fuzzy definition of the cloud edges compared to the sharp edges of the ice floes. Lake Ontario In the above mock analysis of the Great Lakes, Lake Ontario was excluded since neither RADARSAT or any other remote sense data was available for this time frame. This would also be a possibility during the normal analysis process. In cases such as these, imagery from previous days can be analyzed and new ice positions estimated based on winds and temperature. Other options are ice observations and reconnaissance made by U.S. and Canadian Coast Guard vessels on the Lakes and/or reconnaissance done by the National Ice Center. Conclusion The ability to provide cloud free, high resolution imagery for ice mapping and tactical scale analysis make SAR imagery a highly sought after data source for operational support on the Great Lakes. The high resolution allows for identification of ship routes, weakness in the pack ice, and significant ice relief such as the brash piling at the ice edge in figure 2a. Also clear from the above case study, is in melting situations were you have water on the ice, SAR interpretation may not always be obvious. It is important to use the SAR imagery in conjunction with your other remotely sensed data to provide a quality analysis. In this case, visible imagery was able to be closely matched with the results in the SAR imagery and do a better job with fast ice identification in figure 2b and 4b. In addition to the remotely sensed data, other data sources should also be called on to further interpret SAR imagery, point observations from ships, reconnaissance, persistence, winds, and temperature. III. Possible conclusions section or just end with final case, depending on how long cases are. If we need, we can use some stuff about future directions, developmental products. References: Bertoia, Cheryl and J. Falkingham, F.Fetterer, 1998. Polar SAR Data for Operational Sea Ice Mapping, in R. Kwok and C. Tsatsoulis (Eds.). 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